#0008: Repair and Analysis of USB Micro type-B cables

2020-11-062021-03-14 Otto

#0008: Repair and Analysis of USB Micro type-B cables

If you are anything like me you probably have a sizeable collection of broken Micro USB cables neatly spooled onto a hook, or into a bag. Alternatively, you may even have them tangled into a rat king in a box or drawer somewhere … that is if you are a barbarian. You know who you are. So in an effort to lighten my ‘Spares & Repairs’ bin short of throwing things away (perish the thought!). I though it’d be good to repair a few. I know crazy right?

How and where do Micro USB cables typically break?

In order to repair something, we must first asses the damage. Where is it and how much is there? Well, with regards to the generic male USB 2.0 type-A plug to male USB Micro type-B plug cable: the damage is predominantly focused in the male Micro USB plug. Please note I will be using the term ‘Micro USB plug’ as shorthand for ‘male USB Micro type-B plug’ throughout this article.

Initially, I used to get annoyed whenever a cable broke and rebuke the relatively delicate Micro USB plug as poorly designed. However, on reflection it is actually rather good that the weakest point in the pairing of the plug and socket: is in the plug and not the socket. Especially since after such incidents, the device socket tends to end up with little if no damage at all.

This is assuming that the majority of accidental breakages happen under certain conditions. These include: firstly, that the Micro USB plug is inserted into it’s respective socket on the device at the time. Whereupon it comes into acute mechanical stress by something akin a sudden impact (e.g. from a fall); or by a particularly vicious cable snag. This stress consequentially puts a lot of pressure on the connection between cable and device. Which in most cases causes the cable’s plug to give in before the device’s socket. Sometimes both are damaged if the impact is strong enough. However in a more typical scenario the plug breaks first, and in such a way as to leave the socket relatively unharmed.

Although my knee-jerk reaction is irritation whenever I perceive something as genuinely designed to break; I think in hindsight it is better that the cable’s plug is designed to break before the device’s socket. Since the cable is far easier (and consequently cheaper) to either replace or repair than the device would be. After doing some research, it seems that this is a conscious design decision (citation needed) and not one based on anti-consumer avarice, which (as a long time purchaser of consumer grade electronics) is the assumption that I have been conditioned to have in these types of scenarios. “Think Different”, Think Planned Obsolescence.

In this case, it is actually an iterative improvement on it’s predecessor: the Mini USB standard. Which suffered from port damage due to the shape and structural strength of the male plug, coupled with the fact that the retention and locking mechanism is located within the socket in the Mini USB standard. Whereas within the Micro USB standard, all such fragile and consequently breakable parts are located cable side. Having said that though, it still sucks when useful tools break so let’s try fixing them.

picture of a USB Mini socket. It shows the retention clips within the socket. — USB Mini socket

Structure of a male USB Micro type-B to male USB 2.0 type-A cable.

The male USB Micro type-B (or Micro USB) plug on average has typically four or five pads at it’s cable side and five interface pins that mate with it’s counterpart female socket. Please refer to the pin out diagram.

diagram depicting the wiring and pinout of a male USB 2.0 type-A to male USB Micro type B cable.

Its simple really, pins 1 and 5 are used for power. Pin 1 supplies the +5 volts and pin 5 is it’s ground. Pins 2 and 3 are used for transmitting the data signals for communication. And finally, pin 4 is an identification pin, which is used for USB ‘On The Go’ functionality. It essentially tells the device that it is connected to, whether or not it is to act as a host system or a slave device when communicating with the device on the other end of the cable.

hyperlink: post_#0009:_Brief_guide_to_creating_a_USB_OTG_cable

Its a very similar setup with the male USB 2.0 type-A plug on the other side of this cable, except that it lacks an ID pin. Pin 1 is the V bus carrying +5 volts, pin 4 is the signal ground, and pins 2 and 3 are the negative and positive data pins respectively.

The reason the USB type-A plug lacks an ID pin is because any device that has a full sized female USB type-A port is already assumed to be the host system. Finding a peripheral device such as a keyboard (with the exception of USB pass-through), or mouse, or even a smart phone with a full sized female USB type-A socket is non-standard; as are the male USB type-A to male USB type-A cables needed for them.

The wikipedia.org article (“USB hardware”) mentioning this cable labels it as ‘proprietary, hazardous’. If I were to guess as to why that is, I’d say its because it allows the connection of two host systems (e.g. 2 personal computers), with no protocol to decide the role either system has to play. Additionally the input of power into a host system via it’s USB ports may cause damage (e.g. to it’s USB controller) because it may lack short circuit or input protection.

The Repair

Now that we have a basic understanding of the structure of the Micro USB plug and where the damage typically is. We can proceed to repair one.

Recommended tooling:

soldering iron
hot air station / heat-gun / lighter
hot-glue gun
precision knife
third hand clamps (handy grips, etc.)
testing adapters
female USB type-A socket breakout board
female micro USB type-B socket breakout board
multimeter
pliers

Consumables:

hot-glue
heat-shrink
Micro USB male plug kit
(lead-free or leaded) solder
rosin flux
electrical tape

P.P.E.:

safety glasses
light heat resistant gloves

The list above is just as a guide the the types of tools and consumables that you may need. Most of them are optional and are subject to personal preferences and circumstance.

Methods of repairing items

Most real world cable repairs I think broadly fall into one of the three categories or ‘methods’ I outline below. They all have advantages and disadvantages. Some allow for saving more time than money and other’s vice versa. Which ones are most appropriate to use will predominantly be based on the repair technician’s personal preference, available materials, and circumstances.

For example one could if one had two good candidate cables, splice them together into a working unit (i.e. method #1) using minimal tooling: just a knife to strip the wires, several unsoldered pig tail splices for the connections, and some electrical tape to isolate the USB wires from each other. And it would work fine. How long for? Who knows – but it will work for the moment and that may actually be enough. I give the example just to illustrate that things can be repaired a number of ways depending on either the person’s (in this case low) resources, and preferences; which can the run the gambit from the “just get it working for now” repair (shown above), to the perfectionist who wants a permanent repair that will outlast the product.

Method #1: splice two cables together

Probably the quickest method of repair involves simply splicing together two cables. This involves cutting the damaged parts off, then joining and soldering the four pairs of wires together according to their colouring. Red and red, green and green, white and white, black and black; and even sometimes the foil metal shielding if present. Simple. However, be mindful to first electrically isolate each of the four individual pairs, then cover over with a larger gauge heat shrink (for neatness) or electrical tape (for cheapness) to group everything together. I recommend a soldered Western Union splice as a method of joining the wires in the pairings. This is due to it’s relatively low profile and due to the mechanical strength of the resulting connection. Which means that in the case of any future tension on the cable such a sudden hard snag; chances are good that the new connection will not break. Nothing hurts my pride quite like having to repair one of my prior repairs. Consequently, I tend to do it properly the first time round.

hyperlink: post_#0003_Basic_techniques_for_connecting_wires

Now, there are obvious limitations to this method. The most pressing is that cables tend to get damaged in the same spot as each other. Especially when used in the same environment (or by the same people!), and in the same applications. So this method is not applicable in these cases. However in cases where it is applicable it is the shortest and easiest route to creating a reliable and viable cable. Primarily because it effectively bypasses the often finicky business of repairing the actual Micro USB plug.

Method #2: mend and make do (with salvaged spares)

So, like I mentioned above: most of these cables break at the same point. Namely, the male Micro USB plug. So unless you want to end up with a bunch of double ended (full size) male USB type-A cables. Splicing together the good ends of your broken cables isn’t going to do you much good.

So what now? Well first things first. We need to understand the extent of the damage itself. When you examine a broken Micro USB plug. If the metal outer shielding of the plug is present, then chances are that the metal plug itself is bent out of alignment by a fair few degrees across it’s broader sides. In this configuration, the state of the plug’s internal pins is unknown; or more to the point: it is unknown as to whether there is continuity across the pins (i.e. are they snapped or broken). By using a pair of pliers you can carefully correct the angle of the plug. I recommend doing this slowly before trying any other fixes. It needs to be slow, in order to give the delicate internal pins time to bend back into alignment. If the cable works after this, then that means that the internal pins were merely bent and not broken; and it also means that the repair is effectively done.

Alternatively, if after angle correction there is no continuity across the cable. Either by buzzing it out using various adapters and a multimeter — or just by plugging it into (hopefully inexpensive) devices and seeing if the devices recognise each other. Then it is time for a more invasive solution. I stipulate ‘inexpensive’ because many devices with USB ports don’t have adequate protection in cases of hard shorts to ground. It’d be pretty disheartening if a person, for example killed that USB 3.0 port on a their wiz bang gaming rig, because the wires were accidentally soldered incorrectly or shorted on that cheap shit cable they were trying to mend. I doubt that would actually happen, but better safe than sorry.

With a sharp knife, slice into the rubber or plastic sides of the plug. Create a broad slice from where the metal Micro USB plug’s base is (or was), all the way across the plug housing and up close to the strain relief. Peel back the rubber or carefully pry open the plastic to reveal the base of the Micro USB plug. Here you should be able to see where the four wires (for a data cable) or two wires (for a power cable) connect to the Micro USB plug’s base internal section.

This area of the cable: where cable meets Micro USB plug; tends to be either injection moulded with plastic or rubber, or filled with a type of hot glue. It is very easy to do more damage to the plug trying to get to it, then the damage that caused the cable to become inoperable in the first place. So if you intend to repair the Micro USB plug (rather than replace it), I advise proceeding with caution here.

Once you have made it to the base of the Micro USB plug. You many notice that the metal outer shield of the Micro USB is sometimes removable. If yours is, then it should be held in by a clip of some sort. Unclip it. Continue carefully dissembling the plug until you find the fault. In my case the internal pins broke as the plug was bent. I could try to re-solder them together or I could replace the Micro USB base with one from either another plug or a spares kit. Since this is the ‘mend and make do’ method, let’s say I went through the tedium of realigning the tiny pins and soldering them – and without melting their plastic housing or shorting them together no less … What I actually did was just replace the plug base with a known good one, for time and reliability.

Reassemble the plug. Then fill in any cavities you may have carved out on your way in, with hot glue. Close the cable head up, then wrap it in electrical tape. Done.

The strength of this method is that you can repair the cable without necessarily having to purchase additional parts. However the disadvantages are that it is very time consuming and finicky work. Work that could ultimately leave you with a plug that is structurally even weaker than the one you started with. So it may soon break again if not handled with care going forwards.

Make sure to do a through continuity test before pressing this cable back into service. Especially when it comes to testing for shorts across the pins. This includes pin 4, which depending on the testing adapter socket you are using, might be inaccessible. In this case I used to use crocodile-clip leads and needles as probes to test the pins on the exposed male plug without a female adapter. Although, I actually recommend just purchasing (or creating) a female Micro USB socket breakout board. It makes life so much easier than faffing about with a bunch of random low quality adapters or needles … which is what I used to do, and don’t really recommend. But sometimes you have to just use the tools in front of you.

Method #3: use a spares kit

This is probably the simplest actual repair after splicing two appropriate cables together. This method involves using a kit to replace the entire Micro USB plug assembly, including the strain relief. After cutting off and discarding the Micro USB head, remove the outer insulation of the cable, strip the the USB wires within and tin them. If the outer insulation is a fabric braid type, then melt the tip of the insulation with heat to stop it from unravelling.

Next up, slide on heat shrink (for cable bend relief), and then the Micro USB plug housing. This stage is probably easiest to forget. I can’t count the number of times, I have made a really nice soldered connection, only to undo it because I didn’t remember to slide on heat shrink beforehand. It’s funny, it only really happens on the more permanent joints, like the Western Union splice. I think its because I tend to be too preoccupied with making a good strong connection, that consequently: these types of things tend to slip my mind at the time. So take your time and do things methodically.

Just as an aside: heat shrink, in my opinion makes a good form of bend relief for a cable because it makes the cable a little stiffer along the length leading into the plug. This gives it resistance to bending to extreme angles, or allowing repetitive bend or flex damage to concentrate on a singular point on the cable. As for strain relief for the solder joints on the plug base: adding heat shrink to the cable does little. Id est it doesn’t prevent tugging force on the cable from exerting strain on the soldered connections between the cable’s wires and the Micro USB base’s pads. I’d carefully tie the cable end into a loose overhand knot (if it is of a thin enough gauge to do this), making sure not to cause any acute stress points in the wires as a result. This knot will act as a stopper against the insides of the Micro USB plug’s plastic housing. I am not sure whether or not this is generally advisable protocol, I am just stating what I tend to do. The loose knot offers some resistance to a tugging force as it tightens against the hole in the plastic housing. This in turn relieves the solder joints of some of the strain. Alternatively, filling the Micro USB plug’s housing with hot glue will also act as a decent form of (tugging) strain relief for the solder joints. These two methods do this by redirecting the pulling force away from the solder joints and into the housing and general superstructure of the plug.

Moving on. Now with everything in place, solder the USB wires to their respective pads on the Micro USB plug base. This includes the cable’s outer conductive shielding if present. In order to know which pads correspond to which pins: refer to any user guides or datasheets that may have been shipped with your spares kit. Alternatively test the continuity of the pads to the pins using a multimeter and a female Micro USB breakout board.

To connect the cable’s shielding: roll the loose strands into a cord. You may need to wrap this cord with another wire to extend it enough to reach the Micro USB plug’s outer metal housing. Which is a little further away than the USB solder pads on the example kit I have. I needed this extension to the shielding cord because when I cut the cable, it made all the internal wires and strands equal in length, so an extension was necessary in my case. After scratching off the finish on the part of the Micro USB plug’s metal housing that you intend to solder onto. Apply a small patch of electrical tape to insulate the USB wires from the shielding connection. Next, solder the shielding cord to the metal housing. You may need to apply solder to the twisted shielding cord to harden it and fuse the extension if necessary.

Now. Isolate the internal USB wires from each other, by injecting hot glue over and between the four wires. I use the electrical tape from before as a backing for this. I chose to have the adhesive side facing the USB wires, because I intended to wrap it around them at this stage. After this, pull the heat shrink into position then apply heat. Pull the plastic housing over the plug base and align the plug so that it is straight. I used the plastic cap to set the plug’s position. Once satisfied with the plug’s position within it’s plastic enclosure; remove the plastic alignment cap again and inject hot glue to fill any cavities between the plug base and the enclosure. Reapply the alignment cap. Then carefully apply some heat to the now closed plastic housing to make the hot glue within the enclosure melt into all the crevices and hold the alignment cap on. Be careful here because using too much heat can easily damage the plastic enclosure and alignment cap. Once that is done you are effectively finished.

Testing Phase

Although I tend to test at each discrete stage of a repair, for things such as bridged connections between pins or for consistent continuity across connections. I also recommend a final testing phase where we test the resistance of each wire using a USB 2.0 type-A female breakout board and a USB Micro type-B breakout board; or whatever the appropriate boards for the cable you are testing are.

The reason why I do this is to make sure that all the lines are of appropriate conductivity. In other words there aren’t any spikes in resistance in any of the lines that may cause problems when in use. This is especially true for data lines, where resistance will damage signal integrity. Although it is also important for power lines in use-cases involving higher current draws (around 2-3 Amps), such as those used in ‘fast chargers’. If there is sufficient resistance on the VBUS here it will retard the device’s ability to draw power across the cable.

Examples of improvised testing adapters

picture of a partially repaired USB cable inserted into some adapters for testing.

picture of 2 USB type A plugs. One has been stripped of insulation to be used for testing.

It’s generally good protocol to have a control test for comparison when testing your repaired cable(s). In this case I used a Samsung brand, model: U2 APCBU10BBE data cable that came new with a smart phone purchase. Please note: the control cable used here is not designed for higher current draws, it’s device needed a maximum of around 700mA to 1 amp when charging.

(Control) Samsung (U2 APCBU10BBE) data cable:
VBUS: 0.2 ohms
D-: 0.3 ohms
D+: 0.3 ohms
GND: 0.4 ohms
Shielding: none
Cable length (approx.): 1 meter

(Testing) Repaired w/kit yellow cable:
VBUS: 0.2 ohms
D-: 0.3 ohms
D+: 0.5 ohms
GND: 0.6 ohms
Shielding: 0.1 ohms
Cable length (approx.): 1 meter

(Testing) Repaired w/spares red braid (‘fast charge’) cable:
VBUS: 0.2 ohms
D-: 0.3 ohms
D+: 0.2 ohms
GND: 0.1 ohms
Shielding: none
Cable length (approx.): 2 meters

picture of a new USB 2.0 type A to USB Micro type B cable, connected to some breakout boards used for testing. This cable was used as a Control test.

picture of a spares repaired USB 2.0 type A to USB Micro type B cable, connected to some breakout boards used for testing.

picture of the USB type A female socket breakout board and USB Micro B female socket breakout board used for testing.

picture of a kit repaired USB 2.0 type A to USB Micro type B cable, connected to some breakout boards used for testing.

As you can see, they tested close enough that I feel that the cables that we repaired are of an appropriate quality, at least for me to have enough confidence to press them into service. Alternatively instead of using a control test for comparison, if you manage to find a datasheet for a particular cable you wish to replicate. The data from the datasheet can be used as a target instead. I just found it easier to see how my everyday cable fairs, then try to ape it’s stats. Consequently I do not have a concrete idea of what the resistance tolerances and acceptable margins are for these cables to maintain signal integrity while in use. But I am confident from the comparisons with the control cable that we are within them.

However, if say a cable tested (pulling numbers from my … hat) 15 ohms on a data line. I would inspect the repair, if it seems fine: then the problem could be with the cable itself. For example: such as in a wire where many of it’s hidden internal strands have broken due to repeated localised flex damage. So all the current is having to pass through just a few strands at that point, causing an invisible bottleneck. This should have been tested for at the initial stages of a repair when the cable was first cut and the wires exposed. But still, finding this fault at this stage, allows you to make the informed decision on how to go forwards, either demote it to a power only cable (and mark it as such), scrap it for parts, or find and fix the newly discovered fault.

Eventually, once you reach a stage where you are confident in a cable’s performance, the repair is truly complete and it is now ready to use. Done. This time for real. Thank you for reading.

References / Sources / Further Reading:

https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Serial_Programming/USB#What_is_USB?
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB_hardware
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB_On-The-Go
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB_(Communications)#Signaling_state
https://www.ifixit.com/Guide/Micro-USB+Port+Replacement/73401
https://www.portplugs.com/how-to-repair-a-loose-micro-usb-port/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=36CKsP9YQ1E [why does USB keep changing – NostalgiaNerd]
https://goughlui.com/2014/10/01/usb-cable-resistance-why-your-phonetablet-might-be-charging-slow/
https://www.mschoeffler.de/2017/10/29/tutorial-how-to-repair-broken-usb-cables-micro-usb-including-data-transfer/
https://www.mouser.com/pdfdocs/HiroseZX62Datasheet24200011.pdf
https://www.howtogeek.com/670644/what-is-fast-charging-and-how-does-it-work/

#0007: Restoring metal tools

2020-09-232021-05-21 Otto

#0007: Restoring metal tools

side by side picture of a pair of mini-nippers before and after cleaning.

A little while ago I received a bunch of tools for free from a friend, due to them downsizing their home. Unfortunately these tools were stored improperly and suffered weathering damage as a result. They were essentially stored in a puddle, in a bucket, in a leaky shed. Basically leaving everything rusted to one degree or another.

I took the loot home and sorted the good from the bad. And just as I was about to discard the rest; the sheer volume of rusty crap gave me pause. I wondered as to how much of it I could actually save and refurbish to a useable state. However, I should also mention that I was largely unwilling to actually spend any money on this project. I wanted to see what I could do with the tools and resources I have on hand. Consequently I used household sundries like vinegar instead of a rust remover product, and would’ve used some-kind of random household oil (such as cooking oil or bicycle lubricant) instead of WD40 to loosen any seized tools if I didn’t already have it to hand.

example of rust remover product

picture of 5 litre jug of evaporust branded rust remover product

Okay, let jump in. These are the tools and materials I used:

Tools:
    - plastic container
    - wire brush
    - (ball point) hammer
Consumables:
    - water
    - vinegar
    - WD40
PPE:
    - safety glasses
    - thick gloves
    - apron

It’s a nice small list. So there is little in the way of barriers to entry. Meaning that the strength of this method is that it allows people with very limited resources to simply add salvaged tools to their resource pool whenever they find them, and consequently increase their effectiveness.

picture depicting a collection of tools. A wire brush, a spray can of WD40, and a pair of thick gloves.

picture depicting a blue plastic tub and a bottle of inexpensive vinegar.

Basic Method:

I created an acid bath by mixing water and vinegar in a 1:1 ratio into a (barely) large enough container. Added the tools and waited a couple of days (7+) for the acid to fully react with the rust until the solution formed a thick brown foam on it’s surface. Then removed the items from the bath and scrubbed them down with the wire brush until all traces of rust has been removed.

After which, I finished each item off by it wiping dry with a rag. Then wetting it with another rag laced with WD40, and working the solution into the tools’ various crevices to help expunge any traces of moisture and to provide some protection against any further corrosion.

Notable specifics:

Acid Bath:

The reason why I use an acid bath is to react with and consequently remove the the rust. Rust is a form of iron-oxide compound; the acid reacts with the oxygen in the compound and breaks it as a result. Any residual rust left over after the submerging period will in all likelihood be structurally compromised (softened up) and consequently easier to remove manually with a wire brush.

The reason why I use vinegar is because: one; as mentioned above, I didn’t want to spend money and vinegar was a readily available household sundry; and two, vinegar is a very weak (and consequently safe) acid that will return good results if left to work for a long enough time period. I submerged the tools in it for more than a week before I worked on them. Had I used a stronger acid (such as phosphoric acid) or a product (such as evaporust) I would’ve been done within the day and would not in all probability have to work on the tools with a wire brush.

However by successfully using vinegar, it illustrates that it can be done at little cost. Funnily enough it also adheres to that old adage “you can have it done fast and cheaply, but not good; cheap and good, but not fast; or good and fast, but not cheap.” Vinegar would be the second option in that adage.

Additionally, vinegar is such a weak acid that the chances of it damaging the good metal underneath the rust is said to be minimal. Hence less care and attention is needed with it’s application. However having said that, it seems that vinegar does indeed remove material from the tools (as can be seen within the photograph of the partially dipped shears). Whether or not it started to eat away at ‘healthy’ metal or simply removed a thick layer of rust (including the patina) is hard to tell. What I can say definitively is that more material is lost from the tool in the process of using an acid bath over just scrubbing with a wire-brush.

As a final note on this, a good way to immerse items that are perhaps a little too big for the tub you have on hand; is by using rags to wet the areas of tools that are above the waterline. You don’t even have to dip the area below the water level. As long as the rag touches the solution; the capillary effect of the cloth will draw up the liquid towards the areas of the metal that you have wrapped the rag around. Using wet rags is also a good way to avoid a case that requires using voluminous amounts of solution to fill up a big enough container to submerge large or awkwardly shaped items.

example of rags used in an acid bath

screwdriver before and after

comparison between bathed and scrubbed metal and just scrubbed metal

Mini end nippers:

Anything with a seized mechanism such as the pictured mini end-nippers; required WD40 to be applied and allowed to soak into the joints of the mechanism. After allowing it to soak in, I worked the handles again and again until the joints started moving. I continued this until the rust inside the mechanism was macerated by the WD40, and worked out by the repeating opening and closing of the joint.

A hammer might be needed to apply sudden force to either the tool’s (let’s say pliers) jaws, handle, or the joint mechanism itself to loosen it up in the case of a strong seizure. I used a ball point hammer to help localise the hit just to the specific joint without pointlessly impacting the frame of the tool. A hammer punch will also be very effective in directing and localising applied force. Sharpening the nipper’s jaws with a file is also recommended as a final touch.

washed and scrubbed but mechanism still seized

mechanism lubricated and made operable

Drill bits:

With these I found that holding the brush in the left hand and scrubbing with (i.e. in the same direction as) the thread is the best way to get deep into the bits valleys and remove the rust as efficiently as possible. After the bits are cleaned, they also need to be sharpened with either a small file or some kind of specialised bit sharpener.

complete before and after comparison

drill bits after acid bath, before scrubbing and oiling

after scrubbing and oiling

Personal Protective Equipment:

This is something that is often overlooked by people, however I do think that personal safety is something that people should take into account on any and all projects. Well, as long as you don’t go overboard to the point of the sometimes overbearing British “Elf and Safety” silliness. I have seen people on job-sites with overbearing rules go the complete opposite direction as a form of rebellion as soon as the manager is out of sight. Discarding basic things like gloves and eyewear in the process. Its sad honestly.

I am getting off topic. In this case, the apron keeps the rust vinegar mix off of your clothes as you brush down the items (if you care); and more importantly the safety glasses keep that stuff from flicking into you eyes in a moment of inattention. That’s probably the main reason why I wear these things for everything from soldering to this. Its because I am aware that my attention ebbs and flows as I perform tasks, I am not always in the moment 100% and that’s when accidents happen.

So for me at least. Safety glasses are a must, I don’t want to take any chances with my sight. However everything else is largely optional. I also added gloves to protect the hand that is holding down the workpiece from the wire brush. I put these on to allow me to work quickly and effectively.

The point is, there needs to be a mindful reason as to why and when (and when not) to use PPE in projects, even mundane ones such as this.

References, Sources, Further reading:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_oxide
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rust
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patina
Geoffrey Croker – Rust Removal Methods Explained [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qi-tK1jwO-k]
Slavscribe – How to remove rust? Acid vs. Bolt | AcidTube-Chemical reactions [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k9OYNPCnLNs]

#0003: Basic techniques for connecting wires

2020-07-202021-03-14 Otto

#0003: Basic techniques for connecting wires

picture comparing: pig-tail, straight solder, and western union splices

Connections discussed:

Straight solder splice
Pig-tail splice
Western Union splice
T-junction splice

STRAIGHT SOLDER SPLICE

picture showing two wires with their exposed copper ends coated in solder

picture showing a basic straight solder connection between two wires

The straight solder connection is made by aligning two opposite facing wires in adjacent-parallel, tinning them individually, then soldering them together. This joint is most suited for smaller gauge wires. Especially in low-voltage or low-current applications.

I find I use this joint frequently when prototyping and stringing various PCB modules together, such as power-supplies and buck-boost converters. This is because it allows me to make a more than strong enough bond very quickly; and without damaging the wires, by avoiding subjecting them to repeated mechanical strain. For example: by twisting them together and soldering, then de-soldering and unravelling them whenever I want to disconnect a module; as is the case with the other types of joints. With this connection however, it is simple: align and solder to connect; then apply flux, heat, and pull apart to disconnect.

The straight solder connection is actually rather strong in my opinion. When applied properly, it creates a bond that can not be pulled apart easily. I tested this joint by wrapping the wires around my hands then trying to pull the joint apart. It might eventually give, but only after considerable force is applied.

Despite it’s initial success with my basic stress test; I still wouldn’t recommend using this type of joint for any permanent applications. This is because, in my opinion, I don’t believe that it will stand up well in most real-world settings. Settings that involve: temperature swings, vibration, or constant stress on the wire and joint. These things can exacerbate any small imperfections in the weld to the point that they can create fissures that can either cause problems like intermittent connections or outright brake the bond. Since the solder is the only thing keeping the connection, any stress applied to it isn’t mitigated by anything. This strain coupled with environmental heat would make this type of connection unreliable in the field. An example of this would be wiring around an engine.

Still though, as long as the wire is not subjected to any real or ongoing strain in its application, it is not a bad option to utilise this type of connection. Especially for temporary or semi-permanent add-ons to an already established system. For example adding a voltmeter module to an electric bicycle to keep track of the battery levels. That way the module can quickly be de-soldered off or be further modded later with a switch as an example. This type of bond also has the smallest footprint. Allowing smaller sized heat-shrink to be easily applied as insulation.

PIG-TAIL SPLICE

picture showing a pig tail splice between two wires, the connecting twist has been folded down onto one of the wires

The pig-tail or rat-tail splice is probably the most common type of connection that I have encountered in the wild. It is made by holding two wires in adjacent-parallel (facing the same direction), then twisting the exposed ends together. Its a quick and dirty solution to make a good mechanical connection. Usually this type of connection is insulated with either sticky tape or even heat-shrink for a semi-permanent solution. It is not soldered in many cases, as the twists and tape tend to make a ‘good enough’ connection for the use-case.

The alignment of the connecting wires is something to take into consideration when deciding whether or not to use this splice. In cases where the wires are to remain adjacent-parallel and facing the same direction; the pig-tail splice is a good candidate. It will allow the user to join two wires next to each other, whilst minimising any change of location, necessary in order for the wires to accommodate the new connection. Example use-case: connecting 2 or more adjacent wires within a ribbon cable. Additionally, with this setup: the connection can be easily soldered and insulated with heat-shrink by sliding it over the open end.

However in cases where the user is joining two opposite facing wires, they are usually left with a connection made up of a twisted pair that veers off at a right angle. This is then folded onto one of the wires in order to apply insulation. This is mechanically weak, as it concentrates any stress on the wire/connection or more accurately “pulling force”; at the bend. The first twist where the two wires meet.

This configuration of the pig-tail splice rarely takes solder well without ending up with an overly large footprint or bulge that the user has to then slide heat-shrink over. It is also too easy to melt the wires whilst soldering because of how close the insulation on the wires are to each other.

To conclude, this connection is good in solder-less temporary or semi-permanent applications. But if you want a more permanent bond (especially for opposite facing wires), the western union splice is a far better solution.

WESTERN UNION SPLICE

picture showing two wires being lined up for a connection

picture showing the exposed copper ends of two wires crossed over each other

picture showing an unsoldered western union splice between two wires

picture showing a western union splice between two wires

The western union splice is named after the Western Union Telegraph Company. This connection involves crossing the exposed ends of two opposite facing wires together, at a mid-point between the wire’s exposed tip and the start of it’s insulation: in an “X” shape. Then twisting them around each other’s exposed base sections. Continue twisting until the insulation of the opposite wire is reached. Then trim off any excess exposed wire tips. This makes a linear and very strong mechanical connection between the two wires; by maximising the contact area the wires have with each other within the connection. It also functions as a knot of sorts, and once properly soldered, it becomes essentially stronger than either wire itself. In addition it has a relatively small footprint and consequently takes to sliding heat-shrink over it rather well.

This is probably my most favoured splice for permanent connections. However for those same reasons, it is also largely inappropriate for temporary applications. This is because it becomes a hassle to de-solder and untangle the wires. This process will also almost definitely damage the wires involved; by fraying and breaking some copper strands from the stress of unravelling.

THE T-JUNCTION SPLICE

picture showing a T junction connection between three wires

The “T” junction splice is any connection where you add a third wire to an existing connection. The most basic version involves removing the insulation from the mid section of a wire; then wrapping another wire around the exposed section before soldering it in place. Then insulating it. This method can also apply to any of the above connections – and the strength of the additional connection usually depends on the strength of the underlying connection.

You could opt to pig-tail together three wires into a T-junction (or four into an “X”, etc…), or straight solder three wires, or even create a western union splice, then tightly hitch the third wire over that connection for maximum strength.

At its most basic a ‘T’ junction splice is exactly that. Three wires connected together in a rough ‘T’ shape. Everything else is up to the user, and largely depends on the use-case and it’s needs.

SOURCES / REFERENCES / FURTHER READING:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Union_splice

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-splice

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rat-tail_splice

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-to-point_construction

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_board

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solder

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flux_(metallurgy)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soldering

#0002: Cleaning up after an alkaline battery leak

2020-07-202021-03-14 Otto

#0002: Cleaning up after an alkaline battery leak

picture depicting a stack of rusted and leaking double A batteries

This will be a rather basic guide on how to clean out a device after an alkaline battery leak.

Whenever I come across an old device, that for some initially unknown reason refuses to power on. Chances are, that someone left disposable alkaline batteries inside it, and that they have leaked. There are a number of reasons as to why people leave batteries inside devices. Predominantly: laziness, ignorance, or forgetfulness. There are also a number of reasons as to why these same forgotten batteries leak. Batteries with mixed charges, reverse charging each other, or a constant low current draw causing leaking; are but two examples.

Unfortunately, a more in depth look into what causes disposable batteries to leak is outside of the scope of this article. However it is something that I am interested in exploring at a later date. Check the further reading section of this article for the hotlink to that, when I eventually get round to penning it.

I cannot count the number of times I have opened the battery compartment of a device, that has been left in storage for a while; only to be greeted with a vented battery, rust, and the the blue-white fuzzy carpet of alkaline crystals growing out of it. Meshing into, fusing with, and corroding the negative terminal’s spring contacts. This infection then proceeded down the circuit and further into the device and onto more complicated/valuable components. In this regard, an unstemmed battery leak has the potential to brick a device.

picture depicting heavy alkaline battery leak on battery spring terminal

So, how do you deal with it? Well, if caught early and the leak hasn’t progressed far beyond the battery itself, and a bit of surface level corrosion on the spring contacts; then it is really not much of an issue. A quick wipe down with a damp cloth after disposing of the batteries, should suffice. I recommend using isopropyl alcohol to dampen the cleaning cloth, mainly because it becomes non-conductive very quickly by evaporating readily. It also doesn’t leave any contaminants like water might. However water is fine to use in a pinch; just make sure it is fully evaporated and that there is no substance residue left after cleaning; before you power up the device.

picture depicting very light alkaline battery leak on battery spring terminal

If the leak has had the time necessary to progress further into the circuit and deeper into the metals. That’s when you have to take more invasive steps in order to remove it. There are two main ways to deal with an advanced battery leak. Which one to use, largely depends on circumstance. The most important factor being whether or not the affect parts can be removed from the device.

Method #1: Acid Bath

The first method of remedy, requires the removal of the affected parts and the use of an acid bath. Removing the affected parts, will likely require de-soldering. Next, create a bath, of vinegar and water at a ratio of approximately 1:3. So 25% vinegar and 75% water, or thereabouts. This leaves you with a mildly acidic solution for you to submerge any affected parts within. Mix the solution well, then drop the parts in. Leave it for some time. How long for based on your own judgment. I recommend 30 minutes to a couple of hours depending on the invasiveness of the alkaline crystals into the metals.

picture depicting an acid bath (blue tub with vinegar-water inside it), and a pair of forceps

Remove the parts from the solution when you think that they have been in there long enough. At this point, they will require brushing down, to remove any stuck on materials. Use a strong bristly brush for this, something like a firm toothbrush will do. For those wondering, a wire brush would probably be overkill for this application, especially since the subjected parts would likely be rather small, and wire brushes are traditionally made for uses with larger items. Wire brushes will also likely remove the finish on the metal parts, that is if the acid bath hasn’t done so already.

The main reasons why I recommend using a mildly acidic solution to counteract the alkaline crystals is: one, in order to minimise the severity of the reaction between acid and alkaline; and thus minimise the chances of additional corrosion or damage done to the metals in the process; and two, to minimise the chances of the acid removing or damaging the metal’s finish by reacting with it. It should be noted that plenty of parts in modern mass produced devices are made up of mixed metals, then given a chrome finish for uniformity.

picture depicting battery terminals with chrome finish removed by the acid bath

I should note that when I say ‘part’, I am referring to simple primarily metal constructs within devices; such as spring terminals or basic switches. I am not referring to more complicated components such as resistors, capacitors, transistors, or anything more sophisticated than those examples. This is because the acidic solution is very likely to compromise the internal structure or chemistry of any components submerged within it, if the leak’s corrosion hasn’t done so already. Bricking the component in the process. More on what to do with leak affected components mentioned later.

picture depicting two leak corroded battery terminals with chrome finish removed by the acid bath

After brushing all foreign materials off of the parts, dry them off, then wipe them down with a cloth laced with isopropyl alcohol. Continue until you are confident that you have removed all contaminants including traces of alkaline crystals and the acidic solution. Once this is done leave the parts to dry fully, before then placing them back into the device and likely soldering them back into the circuit they come from. That’s it, done.

Method #2: Acid Wrap

The second method of removing alkaline crystals is used when the affected part cannot be removed either from the device or it’s circuit for whatever reason. A good example of this is when a part is either welded, crimped, or glued into place; making it’s removal potentially too destructive to consider lightly.

picture depicting two spring contacts, one clean and the other covered in alkaline crystals

picture depicting two spring contacts, one clean and the other covered in alkaline crystals (front view)

picture depicting two spring contacts, one clean and the other covered in alkaline crystals (back view)

This method requires either tissue paper or cloth. Id est, something that can soak up liquid and cling to a particular structure without external pressure/force. I use tissue paper for this example. Soak the tissue paper in a diluted acidic solution; enough so that it has plenty of solution available but not enough that it drips excess. Then wrap it around the affected parts and wait for time, before removing it and brushing off any loose materials. Rinse and repeat until it looks done. Then clean and wipe down the part with an isopropyl laced cloth. Done.

You can adjust the ratio of vinegar to water to your liking. I still recommend a mildly acidic solution to minimise the severity of the reaction (and any damage caused from it), but the more acidic the solution is, the quicker it’ll dissolve the alkaline crystals off of the affected parts. From my experience a ratio of 1:1 seems to work out well.

Another tip for this method is to properly isolate the rest of the device from the part you are currently working on. This is done to avoid any accidental drips from the tissue paper or off-spray caused by brushing. Vinegar-water and electronic components are best left separated. With that in mind, I recommend using a plastic bag and tape. The plastic bag functions as a waterproof membrane and the tape holds it in place. Simple.

picture depicting two spring contacts, one clean and the other covered in light rust (viewed with chassis)

picture depicting two spring contacts, one clean and the other covered in light rust (front view)

picture depicting two spring contacts, one clean and the other covered in light rust (back view)

Dealing with components

Now that the basic method of cleaning metal parts has been explored, you may be wondering as what to do when the leak has reached more complex components. Well, the answer is simple. Try to remove whatever battery residue you can mechanically; i.e. just using a brush or a small chisel of some sort. Then de-solder/remove the component from the circuit. Test it appropriately. I recommend having both a multimeter as well as a multi-function tester on hand for this. If it is still within specification, solder it back into circuit; if not, replace it. There is not much one can do for any affected components beyond this. Once a capacitor or resistor is broken, it needs to be replaced.

Conclusion

As a final note, I should also mention that in a lot of situations: replacement of the affected metal parts is probably the more appropriate recourse to severe leak damage then repair might be. This means replacing spring terminals, and creating jumper wires as replacements for corroded PCB traces. This is because the repair can weaken the metal, leaving one with brittle spring terminals or a trace with more resistance in it than initially intentioned. However having said that, if you either can not remove the part, or don’t have the prerequisite replacements: then an ugly repair is better than no repair at all.

Sources/References/Further reading:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaline_battery#Leaks

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Alkaline_Battery_Leakage_Inside_a_Product.png

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isopropyl_alcohol

#0001: On creating a website

2020-06-112021-03-14 Otto

#0001: On creating a website

I find myself sitting here at a loss as to what topic I should go with for my first article on this site. It needs to be something interesting, and more importantly this first post will set the standard for those to come; so it needs to be good.

If you read the title, you probably can guess what topic I chose. Yeah, after spinning it in my head for a while; I decided just to go with how this site came into existence. This is after all supposed to be a technical blog (of sorts), so it seems fitting that we start with the basic technology of this website itself.

So what is it that you actually need to create a website? Well, like most questions in life, the answer is: it depends. In this case I needed three things to get up and running: 1) a domain name, an official registered name for my website; 2) a site-builder, software to help me make the thing; and finally 3) a host, some always-online servers to hold the code and contents of the site, these are the computer(s) that users will connect to when they visit the website.

Initially I thought that creating a website would be no sweat. Just get a domain name, get a host, and hash out something in HTML, JavaScript, and CSS (the holy trinity!). No builders necessary. No worries. It should take me exactly “one weekend” to do this. Right?

Well, unfortunately no. I think I fell victim to my own hubris, or more accurately the Dunning-Kruger effect. There was and is so much more to the process that I was unaware of, that I actually thought it’d be straight forwards and easy. Having said that however I should outright state; that yes, creating a web site has never been simpler or easier for the uninitiated. With site builders and turn-key solutions (like wordpress.com or squarespace.com for example); that largely abstract out all the mechanical technicalities, into simple graphic interfaces that a non-technical person can intuitively operate. A good real-world example customer for these would be an artist creating an online portfolio of their works.

These solutions however did not particularly interest me much, as I am interested in the technicalities of the actual infrastructure of the website itself. This I found to be something that is largely abstracted out of relevance by these public facing and user friendly interfaces. Another concern I’d like to voice is that, although these company services do make it very straight forward to get an online presence. They do however charge you for every step on the way, and at the end of it you may end up with something that you don’t exactly want and have spent money on it to boot.

Examples include: purchasing a packaged feature-set that after gaining some experience you realise that you have no use for; or in a bid to save money: purchasing the cheapest packages available then realising after the fact, that your use-case requirements are in excess of the service package’s limitations.

This was one of my primary concerns, and as a result caused me to be very cautious when selecting something out of the numerous and quite frankly somewhat overwhelming options. So many companies, site-builders, hosts, and all the packages and deals that they use and offer. So, after some time being put off from pulling the trigger on anything in particular; then procrastinating (naturally). I finally decided to write up a clear criteria of exactly what I wanted.

I always find that when venturing into the unknown (a bit melodramatic granted), it pays to have a plan, a goal, a list of objectives, a criteria, whatever you want to call it. I have also found it most effective for that plan to be concise in nature and hierarchal in structure. Id est: a numbered list.

So here’s mine:

I wanted a basic website for blogging and a light hosting of files. It will consist predominantly of written articles, image rich guides, as well as to host small to medium files and programs of my own creation (<100MB each). This means the storage size needs to be in excess of 50GB. All those files and HD pictures add up quickly.
I wanted my own unaffiliated domain name. It looks more professional in my opinion. For example: mywebsitename.net instead of something like: mywebsitename.wordpress.com or mywebsitename.googlesites.com.
I wanted the site to be adequately secure against malware, spam, and intrusion with minimal intervention on my part. In other words I wanted to be hands off when it came to securing my contents. I need good ready on-hand security without having to divert my time and efforts into a rabbit-hole of research, at least for now.
And finally, and most importantly. I wanted to be able to have this whilst maintaining a degree of privacy. I want an online presence without freely advertising my personal information to the world at large.

So that’s it: basic small bloggers site, with it’s own name, adequate hosting, some protection, some privacy, and with a comfortable storage limit. Obvious right, well not so in my experience. There is merit in writing down the obvious and enumerating it. It brings it to the front and centre and adds it to an objective hierarchy that one can work from.

In the end, after a frustrating period of paralysis via analysis, and exploring a multitude of different options on the market; I decided to just take the shortest route to my goal. Perhaps not the best route for my personal use-case, but that is the kind of thing one sees with experience and hindsight. So I decided to pick a reasonable option and just jump in and see how it goes.

And that is exactly what I did; I ended up going with wordpress.org as my choice of website builder. Three main reasons: one, it’s ubiquity – it is well known, well used, and well documented. So any issues I may come across, chances are good that someone else has, and probably documented a solution to boot. The second reason I liked WordPress, was because of it’s open-source and community driven nature. This makes it versatile meaning if there is a particular feature I wished for, chances are that someone else has, and has a documented implementation of it somewhere. Lastly, the third reason is simple, it is free. This allowed me to tinker with it without any financial investments.

As to why I didn’t just build the website out from source myself. Well beyond making a basic website consisting of static webpages linked together, this was beyond my skill-set and interest level at this time if I am honest. I wasn’t willing to spend the time and effort to learn to implement every little feature that I wanted for it. This could include anything from animated drop-down menus, to allowing user comments, or embedding videos within articles. It would have required more of a personal investment than I was willing to put in at the time; especially since I just wanted something useable and customisable to be up and running in a timely fashion. That, and I couldn’t justify taking time from other projects and responsibilities, the reward to work ratio wasn’t sufficient.

Please note, there is a distinct difference between wordpress.org and wordpress.com. WordPress.org is just the open source website builder software. Whereas wordpress.com is a company that bundles in the website builder with their own hosting and support services. They are not the same entity.

Next up, hosting. This one is quite simple since as far as I know, one competent host is as good as another. I went with bluehost.com since they were recommended from wordpress.org via affiliate links. Their prices for what I wanted were also reasonable. Funnily enough, I got my domain name via bluehost’s partners. So it was a case of choosing WordPress and being funnelled to affiliates and partner’s services for the rest. It made things simple and since I actually have little experience in setting up websites; I was more concerned with not using the “wrong” company (dodgy or otherwise) or “wrong” tools (wasting time learning inferior tool sets – been there done that…), than I was concerned with choosing the best deal. As long as what I got was what was advertised, and what was advertised was good enough to get started.

With the WordPress optimised setup, I ended up with a “shared webhost service”. Essentially my website would be sharing the server with many others like it. This is because a simple WordPress website doesn’t really need anything that requires dedicated hardware. For example: large processing capabilities for online gaming. This website wasn’t going to be folding proteins or using their server for automated stock trading or anything like that. It also didn’t need a large reservoir of storage space available, since it wasn’t an archival or file hosting website.

The “shared webhost service” is the one of the cheaper options available. Others include a “virtual private server”, this is a mid-tier option allowing the subscriber to have a virtual server with it’s own allotted RAM and CPU usage. Additionally, and probably the most expensive option available is renting a dedicated server. Its exactly what it sounds like, the subscriber just rents a box dedicated to just them; and consequently they can have complete control over it. The latter two mentioned here are overkill for this humble hobbyist’s blog. They are more appropriate for the other examples I mentioned above.

While I was going through the processing of setting up the host; and looking through their various options; two features/services that they offered popped out to me, and I would like to highlight them for you. The first is “domain privacy” and the second is that of “SSL Certificate”.

Domain Privacy. This basically allows you to own the website without having your personal information plastered all over whois.com (or who.is, or whois.net, or what have you). Websites that comb website registrars for ownership information. As the newly minted website owner, your contact information would be listed there. Alarmingly, this includes: your full name, address! and any contact numbers or email addresses you provided whilst registering the site. It should also be noted that lying on the registration is apparently punishable by law (I read that somewhere during the signing process, but I can’t find a direct reference or link stating that. Apologies). Unfortunately I can’t actually speak to exactly where it applies, and what kind of punishment.

This is not really a problem for a business, with its own legal identity and premises; however it most certainly a problem for the private individual. If you then purchase “domain privacy” from the hosting or registering company, this will result in them acting as a mediator and using their information as a substitute for yours on these public listing.

I believe different countries have different laws regarding public displays of website owner’s personal information, via sites like who.is. Some permit it by default, others favour the owner’s privacy and don’t allow the display by default. My concern here is, although I live in a country that [with regards strictly to this] favours the individual’s privacy, the company that I’m doing business with is in another country, one that does not. Whose countries laws takes priority? Is seemed like the more prudent thing for me to do was to just purchase this service, rather than leave it to chance.

The second feature of note I encountered, is that of a “SSL certificate”. Put simply this gives the website a certificate of authenticity. This is issued from some association charged with verifying that the websites users connect to are who they say they are. In addition this allows secure connections to site servers using the HTTPS protocol. This is important to me as I know I am rather reticent to visit many non-https websites, especially since many modern browsers such as Firefox (circa 2020), warn users who connect to non-https or unsecured websites. Its just another layer of security to take advantage of. One that grants a level of authenticity.

Moving on. It should be noted that when I purchased the hosting I also got the ability to setup my own emails system using cPanel. cPanel is a general control panel for web hosts that enables you to control all the various programs for your website. In this case an email client. I decided to go with one central email address (mail@tinkerersblog.net) using the webmail service and the roundcube mail client. There are other options of email client available, including: Horde and squirrelmail.

That’s basically the process from start to finish. At this point I have a basic WordPress template site and email. All that was left was to customise it to my liking and create content. In retrospect, the biggest hurdle for me was the over-abundance of choice on the market. It required an exhaustive process of researching and vetting the various services, and options available there-in. Other than that, once you have chosen a particular company, host, or web-builder you like; they tend to do a good job of keeping you in their ecosystem for the rest of the things you need to get set up. They do this predominantly via affiliate links and discounts.

The funny thing is now that I am committed and have paid approximately £180 for a 3 year deal for this site; I still think that maybe I could have found something better. A particular tool-set, or cheaper deal that would suit me more, maybe I invested into a bad company or technology, or perhaps I made a mistake when buying optional add-ons? Who knows? I guess I will, later. Still though, it is a nagging feeling that lingers on after the decision has been made.

Besides, the primary objective was to get started and that has been done. It’s only really with hindsight that I can make better decisions for my particular use-case; and that comes later. I guess that Steven Wright quote holds water here: “Experience is the thing you get just after you needed it” … I am paraphrasing. Anyway, That’s all for my musings.

Thank you for reading.

Sources / References / Further reading:

https://whois.icann.org/en/domain-name-registration-process
https://whois.icann.org/en/about-whois
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WHOIS
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPanel
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webmail
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roundcube
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SquirrelMail
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horde_(software)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_privacy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTML
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cascading_Style_Sheets
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript
https://www.dreamhost.com/blog/wordpress-differences-beginners-guide/